A Collection of Recipes (How African Foods From the Slave Trade Influenced American Cuisine) By: Kenny Holbrook, Sarah Nicely, Merci Irakoze, Kenny Nelson, and Loren Weber

A Collection of Recipes

(How African foods from the slave trade influenced American cuisine)

By: Kenny Holbrook, Sarah Nicely, Merci Irakoze, Kenny Nelson, and Loren Weber

                                             

The crops that were grown in the New World with the development of colonization were either to be exported to Europe or to feed the Africans slaves. Sugarcane, coffee, cotton and cacao were among the crops that were grown and were called “cash crops” because even though they required a large workforce, they were extremely profitable to the colonizers. The crops grown to feed the African slaves during the transatlantic trace include rice, okra, tania, black eyed peas, pigeon pea, fonio, bambara groundnut, taro, kidney beans, lima beans, plantains, millet, sorghum, guinea melon, watermelon, yams and sesame.

Black eyed peas first arrived in Jamaica around 1675 and spread throughout the West Indies. Okra to the New World in the 1600s too. The slaves used the young fruit that contains the vegetable mucilage to eat by boiling. The first rice seeds were directly imported from the Island of Madagascar in 1685. When the Europeans figured rice had the potential to become a cash crop too, they bought Africans from the Island of Goree to supply the labor and technical expertise.

The cash crops, as mentioned earlier, demanded considerable labor. To tend the fields, harvest the crop, and feed the mills, tasks that were performed solely by the African slaves were very labor intensive. Those slaves, therefore, needed some nourishment to survive under the inhuman conditions of living they were subjugated to. Cultivating those crops was also a way for the African slaves to resist to the system, for it allowed them to resist diets imposed by the colonizers and choose what they wanted as their daily sustenance. Runaway slaves established communities and could grow crops of their own choosing provided they had the availability.

These African crops (cash and food) made it to the New World in many diverse ways. At times, slaves would hide native seeds in their hair and clothes so they could have a piece of home with them in their new world. These crops also doubled as provisions aboard slave ships with food for the slaves, the slave traders and the ship crews and the surplus would be used in the New World to grow. The Atlantic Slave Trade was a very profitable commerce, therefore the slave traders would ensure they keep the slaves alive during their journey (Carney & Rosomoff, 2009)

Recipe with okra and breadfruit from Haiti: TomTom ak Kalalou

Ingredients:

• 1 breadfruit
• 1 lb. okra (fresh or frozen)
• 1 cup djon djon mushrooms
• 1 tablespoon olive oil
• 1 small onion, sliced
• 1 teaspoon sea salt
• 1/4 teaspoon freshly-ground black pepper
• 1/4 lb. of the seafood in season [Dorville recommends salted fish that is pre-soaked to remove the salt and then shredded, but this is usually replaced with in-season seafood that is cooked (shelled if crab or deboned if fish) and shredded; for a vegetarian version, I substitute djon djon mushrooms or whatever fresh mushrooms are on hand. DC]

Preparation:

Quarter the breadfruit.  Peel the sections and remove and discard their center area with the heart of the fruit and the small black seeds. If this is not done completely, the dish will be bitter.  Cut each slice into 4 equal-size pieces. Boil in salt water for 30 minutes or until soft to a fork, then discard water and cool. Mash the cooled breadfruit in a large mortar with a pestle, occasionally wetting the pestle to keep the purée from sticking to it.  Alternatively, mash the breadfruit in a blender.

While the breadfruit boils: Prepare the okra sauce by cutting and discarding both ends of the okra and then boiling the okra in a small pot. Discard the liquid. Transfer to a blender.

In another small pot, soak the djon djon mushrooms in 2 cups of water for 10 minutes, boil for 5 minutes, and strain the mushrooms, pouring the dark liquid into the okra. Blend for a few seconds.

In a frying pan, heat the oil and sauté the onion for 2 to 3 minutes. Add the shredded seafood and sauté another minute. Add the okra purée. Bring to a boil and simmer together for 20 min. Add black pepper and pikliz, to taste.

For individual servings, spoon the bread onto each plate and add the fish-okra sauce on the side. The breadfruit should be dipped in the gumbo sauce and swallowed without chewing.

This recipe is a traditional Haitian Recipe and there is a Haitian proverbs which says that “One finger does not eat kalalou gombo”, (Ou sèl dwèt pa manjé kalalou gombo). One of the main ingredients in this recipe is breadfruit which is a tropical plant that is tall and lush. The breadfruit tree has one of the highest yields for ant food plants.  A single fruit is said to be able to feed a whole family and each tree can produce over 200 fruits a year. The fruit originated in Asia and probably came over to the New World before the 17th century, but it is unclear how it got to the New World.  Another major ingredient in this recipe is Okra, which also grows very well in tropics as well.  It originated in Ethiopia and came to the New World with the slave trade in the mid 1600’s. Similar to how rice was brought to the New World by being hidden in people’s hair okra was also snuck across the ocean with the slaves who were forced to the New World.  Okra and rice was a very important crop in Africa and it continued to be one in the New World.

Slaves needed food, slave traders needed food, and ship crews needed food. Only so much could be brought on the ships from Europe to feed the crew. Temperate zone plants were not suited for the tropical climates. Indigenous crops were intriguing to the Portuguese slave traders and were loaded onto the slave vessels as provisions. Credit for the movement of such crops is often given to the Europeans who typically did not use them as a food source or know how to grow them. African species were likely put aboard every ship that crossed the middle passage. Seeds, tubers, people who valued them. Europeans believed that feeding the slaves staples they were accustomed to, gave them a better chance at surviving. African tamarind and kola used to improve water stores aboard ships. Kola curbs hunger and freshen the taste of stagnant water and food. In the leftover provisions from slave ships they found means to reestablish staple crops in the western hemisphere. Runaway slaves established communities and could grow crops of their own choosing provided they had the availability. Cassava and rice plant based medicine.

Chery, Dady. "Breadfruit with Okra – Tomtom Ak Kalalou Gombo – Veritab Ak Gombo." Haiti Chery. Wordpress, 22 Apr. 2012. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. http://www.dadychery.org/2012/04/22/breadfruit-with-okra-tomtom-ak-kalalou-gombo-veritab-ak-gombo/

"Big Easy" Gumbo

Gumbo has a rich history and is often called the greatest contribution of Louisiana kitchens to American cuisine. This dish has its origins in Louisiana during the 18th century when French cooking techniques provided the beginning with bouillabaisse. The native Choctaws file' powder and local seafood were a major addition to the local cuisine. African okra found its way into the Louisiana kitchens, and provided gumbo with its name (gumbo is the African word for okra). Bell peppers, celery and onions (the trinity) were brought to the table by Spanish colonists.

Ingredients:

• 1/2 cup peanut oil
• 1/2 cup all-purpose flour
• 1 cup chopped sweet onion
• 1 cup chopped green bell pepper
• 1 cup chopped celery
• 2 teaspoons Creole seasoning
• 2 teaspoons minced garlic
• 3 (14-oz.) cans low-sodium chicken broth
• 4 cups shredded cooked chicken
• 1/2 pound andouille sausage, cut into 1/4-inch-thick slices
• 1 1/2 cups frozen black-eyed peas, thawed
• 1 pound peeled, large raw shrimp      (16/20 count)

Preparation:

1. Heat oil in a large Dutch oven over medium-high heat; gradually whisk in flour, and cook, whisking constantly, 5 to 7 minutes or until flour is chocolate colored. (Do not burn mixture.)

2. Reduce heat to medium. Stir in onion and next 4 ingredients, and cook, stirring constantly, 3 minutes. Gradually stir in chicken broth; add chicken and next 2 ingredients. Increase heat to medium-high, and bring to a boil. Reduce heat to low, and simmer, stirring occasionally, 20 minutes. Add shrimp, and cook 5 minutes or just until shrimp turn pink.

"Gumbo History and Origins with Bygone Times of Louisiana." Gene Gautro. Gumbocooking.com, n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. http://www.gumbocooking.com/gumbo-history.html

"Big Easy Gumbo.” My Recipes, 22 Dec. 2015. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. http://www.myrecipes.com/recipe/big-easy-gumbo

During the Columbian Exchange, the transatlantic slave trade became the largest extradition of people in the history of the world. At this time, millions of Africans were forced from their homes, placed on ships headed to the New World, and auctioned off as slaves. However, no one could have fathomed what would transpire next. These tragic events end up having one of the largest impacts on the existing American diet. The merging of African and American native foods began to create new varieties of cuisine. Southern plantation families started to enjoy this flavorsome fare of African vegetables, fruits, and seeds combined with the foods they were used to. During this time, the rise of new techniques of cooking also began to appear. This can be credited to the slaves that became cooks inside the plantation houses. One-pot wonders like stews and gumbos (thickened with okra or nuts) became more prevalent and started to spread in the New World.

BLACK-EYED PEAS AND OKRA STEW (also known as RED RED)

This flavorful recipe can trace its roots all the way back to the Old World in Ghana where it was transported during the Slave Exchange. During this period of the Columbian Exchange, American slave owners would trade or purchase African seeds so their slaves were eating the same foods from their homeland. This ultimately allowed slaves to plant gardens for themselves and initiated the integration of Old World and New World crops into new cuisines.

Ingredients:

• 2-3 cups dried cow-peas (black eyed peas) or similar
• 1 cup red palm oil (or vegetable oil)
• 1-2 onions, thinly sliced
• 2-3 ripe tomatoes, quartered
• Cayenne pepper or red pepper
• Salt and black pepper to taste
• Several ripe or near-ripe plantains
• 1-2 bouillon cubes
• 4 Cups Chopped Eggplant
• (Optional) Small piece of smoked or dried fish
• (Optional) One spoonful of shrimp powder

Preparation:

1. Clean the black-eyed peas with water in a large pot (Soak them for at least an hour or overnight). After soaking them, rub them with your hands to remove the skins. Rinse away the skins (and any other debris). Drain them in a colander. (If you are using smoked or dried fish: remove the bones and skin, rinse and soak them in water, then dry them. If you are using dried shrimp: grind the shrimp or obtain already ground or powdered shrimp).

2. Place the black-eyed peas back into the large pot, fill with enough water to cover the peas and bring to a slow boil; reduce heat, cover with lid, and simmer until the peas are tender: 30 minutes to 1hour. (Helpful Hint: When cooked, the peas should be moist, but not standing in water.)

3. While the peas are cooking: Heat the oil in a skillet. Sauté the onions until slightly browned, then add the tomatoes (if desired add fish and dried shrimp). Mash and stir the mixture to form a sauce.

4. Stir the sauce (onion-tomato mixture) into the black-eyed peas. Add bouillon cubes (if you are not using fish or shrimp). Simmer for 10 minutes.

5.  Add salt, black pepper, and cayenne or red pepper to taste.

Serve with fried bananas or plantains, or over top of rice. Enjoy!

"How to Cook Red-Red Stew from Ghana, Africa." Africa Imports. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://africaimports.com/poultry6.asp?url=

Pinchin, Karen. "How Slavery and African Food Traditions Shaped American Cooking." National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 01 Mar. 2014. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140301-african-american-food-history-slavery-south-cuisine-chefs/?google_editors_picks=true

This recipe covers yams and also includes avocado so another good example of mixed cultures.

Ingredients:

• 4 (8 ounce) yams
• 1 medium red bell pepper, seeded and diced
• 2 avocados - peeled, pitted, and mashed
• 1/4 cup chopped fresh cilantro
• 1/4 cup olive oil

• 2 green onions, sliced
• 1/2 teaspoon ground cumin
• 3 tablespoons lime juice
• salt and ground black pepper to taste
• 1 cup shredded Cheddar cheese

Preparation:

1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F (175 degrees C). Place yams on a baking sheet.
2. Bake yams for 40 minutes, or until tender, turning occasionally. Set aside.
3. In a medium bowl, mix together the red pepper, avocado, cilantro, olive oil, green onions, cumin and lime juice.
4. Cut yams in half lengthwise, and fluff the centers with a fork. Top with the avocado stuffing. Season with salt and pepper, and top with shredded Cheddar cheese.

Mott, Lynn, et al. "Avocado Stuffed Yams Recipe." Allrecipes. N.p., 20 Nov. 2006. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. http://allrecipes.com/recipe/82227/avocado-stuffed-yams/?internalSource=staff%2Bpick&referringId=2452&referringContentType=recipe%2Bhub&clickId=cardslot%2B5

Avocado Stuffed Yams

Ingredients:

• 4 (8 ounce) yams
• 1 medium red bell pepper, seeded and diced
• 2 avocados - peeled, pitted, and mashed
• 1/4 cup chopped fresh cilantro
• 1/4 cup olive oil

• 2 green onions, sliced
• 1/2 teaspoon ground cumin
• 3 tablespoons lime juice
• salt and ground black pepper to taste
• 1 cup shredded Cheddar cheese
• Add all ingredients to list

Preparation:

1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F (175 degrees C). Place yams on a baking sheet.
2. Bake yams for 40 minutes, or until tender, turning occasionally. Set aside.
3. In a medium bowl, mix together the red pepper, avocado, cilantro, olive oil, green onions, cumin and lime juice.
4. Cut yams in half lengthwise, and fluff the centers with a fork. Top with the avocado stuffing. Season with salt and pepper, and top with shredded Cheddar cheese.

This simple yet fulfilling dish combines ingredients from New World and Old World cultures. Yams are incredibly significant in African countries as a staple food. They are also an important part of African tradition. As sugar became increasingly popular for Europeans, plantations multiplied and expanded. Slave labor became more necessary and, consequently, the exportation of African natives increased exponentially. Their European captors had the theory that the Africans had a better chance of surviving the journey across the Atlantic Ocean if they were able to eat their native crops while traveling. Massive amounts of grains and other products that would not ruin were bought in Africa and transported on the vessels that also held slaves. While mass amounts of potatoes would be too heavy to ship but the extended shelf life of sweet potatoes would be an incentive for the Europeans to utilize them as food for the trip. Furthermore, these African slaves had a certain impact on what the slave traders bought even if they did not recognize it. The importance of the crop to the African slaves probably played a role in the Europeans decision to carry them to the New World. Avocados on the other hand, are native to the Old World. Originating in Mexico, they are extremely valuable in tropical and Mediterranean climates. The meshing of these two crops into one recipe is just one of many that shows how the cultures have melded to create an interesting cuisine.

Colombian Chicken Stew: Sancocho

Ingredients:

• 7 cloves garlic
• 3 medium carrots, chopped
• 1 red bell pepper, cored, seeded, and chopped
• 1 green bell pepper, cored, seeded, and chopped
• 1 small Spanish onion, chopped
• 1 habanero chili, chopped
• 2 cups chopped fresh cilantro leaves
• 1 gallon water
• 3 low-sodium chicken bouillon cubes
• 1 tablespoon ground cumin
• Salt and pepper
• One 3-to 4-pound chicken, cut into 8 pieces
• 1 small yucca, peeled and cut into 2-inch pieces
• 1 green plantain, peeled and cut into 2-inch pieces
• 5 all-purpose potatoes, halved
• 2 ripe plantains, peeled and cut into 3-inch pieces
• 4 ears corn, cut in 3 pieces

Preparation:

1. In a blender, puree the garlic, carrots, peppers, onion, chile, and 1 cup cilantro.

2. In a large pot, combine the puree with the water, bouillon cubes, and cumin, and season with salt and pepper. Bring to a boil, lower the heat, and simmer for 30 minutes.

3. Add the chicken and simmer for another 20 minutes.

4. Add the yucca and green plantain and simmer for 10 minutes more. Add the potatoes, ripe plantain, and corn and simmer for another 15 minutes.

5. In a blender, combine the remaining 1 cup cilantro and a little of the stew broth and puree. Stir the puree into the soup, season with salt and pepper, and serve.

Although this is a traditional Colombian recipe, it actually contains an ingredient that is significant to African culture as well. Plantains are indigenous to Africa. There is evidence of this crop in the New World before European presence but it is clear that the slave trade is accountable for the rising popularity of the fruit. To the Europeans, it was an exotic tropical fruit. Historically, plantains have been referred to as figs because non-natives had no other name for the interesting crop. Like many other African crops, plantains were transported to the New World by the same ships that brought the slave laborers.  Because the entire plant was edible, transplantable parts were also shipped and then cultivated by the slaves. Typically, the African slaves were forced to work not only in the plantations growing sugar cane and tobacco, they also had to work on small plots of land to grow their own sustenance. Many plants native to Africa were incorporated into New World culture through the slave’s production of their traditional foods. After the slave ships were unloaded, excess food supplies would fall into the hands of the slaves who would then grow them in their own space.  Communities of escaped slaves were also prevalent. Called maroon subsistence farming, these communities played a major role in the spread of African Native crops in the New World. In order to survive and avoid recapture, they traveled far from European settlements and typically settled in hostile lands that Europeans would hesitate to invade. Growing a mix of native crops and African crops, they were able to survive. Coastal regions of Columbia had high populations of slave laborers who worked on sugar plantations and mining operations. Due to this, African and South American cultures were combined resulting in things such as this diverse recipe.

Cabrera, Nancy. "Colombian Chicken Stew: Sancocho." Food Network. Scripps Networks, LLC, 10 Jan. 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/colombian-chicken-stew-sancocho-recipe

Katherine Collins, Maci New, Adam Funck, Grace Kinner

https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=1uYgg-9VfpRdBUnvHfI-YPncqwVI&ll=28.568012018388195%2C-48.81151279680353&z=3

Explanatory Paragraph:

The Transatlantic Slave Trade, through which millions of people from the African continent were sold into slavery and transported across the Atlantic Ocean, is inextricably linked to the Colombian Exchange, which saw the trading of various crops types from the “Old World” to the “New World” and vice versa. The major cash crops from the trade include sugar (both sugar cane and refined sugar), tobacco, chocolate, and cotton. The ease with which these crops were grown resulted in a rapid expansion of the local populations as well as in the volume of the commodities demanded. Consequently, this expansion called for more agricultural production and ultimately more slaves. “The slave trade increased in the seventeenth century, as more large-scale agricultural production increased the need for labor” (Rose). With the increased need for labor, slave traders had to go ever deeper into the continent, due to the fact that the populations of viable slaves in Western Africa had been sucked dry. Therefore, we can conclude that the crops that moved back and forth between the New and Old Worlds were the ones that were easily cultivated and profited from, and that the Slave Trade was ultimately the tool used to provide the workforce needed for their cultivation.

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